Compare and Contrast WWI & WWII Essay

There are a lot of similarities and differences between the two world wars. A main factor, however, is that the events in the first world war basically caused most of the events to happen in the second world war. The two wars are very closely tied together and have a big relationship with each other.First off, some of the differences from the first world war to the second. If we compare the costs of the two world wars, the difference is outstanding. It is estimated that the First World War cost 380 billion dollars, while the Second World War cost 42,000 billion dollars.(militaryhistory.com) That right there shows us how much bigger the Second World War was over the first. The ways people fought in the First World War had very little in common with the way they fought in the Second World War. World War I started the trend that there was no difference between the citizens of a nation and the military. World War II finishes off this trend by bombing and killing any member of a nation, including the normal citizen . Life did not matter as much in the Second World War. Trench warfare was dominant in the First World War, but bombings and sudden aerial attacks, with highly mobile armies took dominance in the Second World War . The Second World War was not greeted with the same frame of mind like the First World War was. This war had men and women remembering the horrors of the first. It had them entering the Second World War with determination and a better appreciation of the devastation that war could bring .There were also some similarities to both world wars. Both wars were started by threats to the balance of power, and both were conflicts between entire nations and people, not the governments . Both wars started with a general war in Europe and escalated to a worldwide situation. Eastern Europe also went under transformations after both World Wars . Both World Wars included the falling of major empires. The First World War saw the fall of the Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian empires. The Second World War saw the end of the British, French, and Dutch empires. The collapse of these empires caused similar results after both World Wars, they started conflicts among ethnic peoples with many different religions.(Historychannel.com) The major cause for the First World War was  the assassination of the Austrian archduke. This is what started all the bloodshed and battles for the first war. Nobody really saw the First World War coming, and after it was over Woodrow Wilson said it was the â€Å"war to end all wars† . So many people had died in the First World War and Wilson wanted to get something good out of it, so he tried to approve the Treaty of Versailles even though he was very ill. All the countries ended up accepting this treaty, except for the United States. This treaty was never passed and kept getting shot down until Wilson finally died in 1924 . Many people agree that nothing in World War I was worth all the slaughter. The darkness of the First World War shaped the next 20 years for the Second World War. Many events from the First World War are directly related to the Second World War. Many people agree that Adolf Hitler could not have done what he did without the First World War occurring. The cause of the Second World War was related to the failure of the peace terms from the First World War. These peace terms created as many problems as they may have solved . Another point was made that Lenin’s plans for international revolution in the aftermath of World War I, which were not fulfilled, would be fulfilled in the course of World War II .(Discoverychannel.com) At the end of the First World War, Britain, France, and Italy establish their indirect and direct rule throughout the remaining Ottoman lands except for the territory of the Turkish Republic. At the same time, the retreat of Western colonialism was happening and accelerated dramatically in the aftermath of World War II. The collapse of the Soviet Union brought more independence to Muslim societies (Historychannel.com). According to Franklin Roosevelt, the Second World War would â€Å"end the system of unilateral action, the exclusive alliances, the balances of power, and all the other expedients that have been tried for centuries – and have always failed.† We will have a â€Å"universal organization† of â€Å"peace-loving Nations† and the beginning of a â€Å"permanent structure of peace†.(Historychannel.com) Instead World War II produced a truly global Cold War. World War I generated fascism, communism, and the reversal of a century-old trend toward democracy. The conclusion of the First World War happened because Wilson came up with the Fourteen Points, which was the  best-known peace proposal for all the countries. The Treaty of Versailles was the final conclusion to this war. Wilson, Lloyd George, and Clemenceau finalized it . The conclusion of the Second World War was quite deadlier. The United States ended this war by dropping two atom bombs on Japan’s infamous cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . The peace settlement was started by Stalin, Churchill, and Roosevelt after Japan gave its unconditional acceptance of Allied demands. Many people agree that absolutely nothing good came out of the First World War, which I believe is true. The only thing that came out of the First World War was the setting up for the Second World War. One very good thing came out of the Second World War, and that was the United Nations and the Security Council. For once the world had a united body that they could turn to. This has seemed to be working well since we have not had any major wars since World War II. I do feel though that the United States will do whatever it wants even if the United Nations and rest of the Security Council disagree with them. A good example of this is the recent military action on Iraq. Basically, the entire UN Council is somewhat against this, yet the United States feels it’s there right to move in. I still believe though that the United Nations was a very good thing that came from World War II. There is one thing we do have to consider though. Was the bloodshed and killing of World War I and World War II worth the forming of the United Nations? Some people think these World Wars had to happen as advancement in society. But that is a whole different story.

Dental Amalgam and the Risks Essay

What is amalgam? Amalgam is a combination of metals that has been used in dentistry for more than 100 years. It is still commonly used today. Although it sometimes is called â€Å"silver amalgam,† amalgam actually consists of a combination of metals. These include silver, mercury, tin and copper. Small amounts of zinc, indium or palladium also may be used. How safe is amalgam? Many studies on the safety of amalgam fillings have been done. In 2009, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) evaluated this research. It found no reason to limit the use of amalgam. The FDA concluded that amalgam fillings are safe for adults and children ages 6 and above. Why is mercury used in amalgam? Mercury is used in amalgam because it helps make the filling material pliable. When it is mixed with an alloy powder, it creates a compound that is soft enough to mix and press into the tooth. But it also hardens quickly and can withstand the forces of biting and chewing. Why the concern about mercury in amalgam? Everyone is exposed to mercury through air, drinking water, soil and food. Concerns have been raised, for instance, about the amount of mercury building up in fish as a result of pollution. Mercury enters the air from industries that burn mercury-containing fuels. Mercury from all sources can build up in body organs. As with most substances, the degree of harm caused by mercury in the body is related to the amount. Very low levels don’t cause any ill effects. At higher levels — for instance, when workers are exposed to mercury through their jobs — mercury can cause several symptoms. These include anxiety, irritability, memory loss, headaches and fatigue. Studies have shown that the amount of mercury you are exposed to from your fillings is less than the amount that most people are exposed to in their daily environment or in the food they eat. Do some people have reactions to amalgam? In rare cases, people have allergic reactions to the mercury in amalgam. The American Dental Association says that fewer than 100 cases of this type of allergy have ever been reported. People allergic to amalgam can receive other filling materials. Should pregnant women be concerned about amalgam feelings? Research has not shown any health effects from amalgam fillings in pregnant women. However, mercury can cross the placenta. In general, dentists advise pregnant women to avoid unnecessary dental care. Women should not get amalgam fillings during pregnancy. Dentists can suggest other materials for any pregnant woman who needs a cavity filled. If amalgam is safe, why does my dentist take precautions when handling it? Because dentists work with mercury almost every day, they must take safety precautions. Without protection, dentists can inhale mercury vapors. Over time, this exposure can produce symptoms of mercury toxicity. How is dental amalgam made? To make dental amalgam, dentists mix liquid mercury with a powder containing silver, tin and other metals. Dentists buy special capsules that contain the powder and the liquid mercury, separated by a membrane. They use special machinery to puncture the membrane and mix the amalgam while it is still in the capsule. Once mixing is complete, the capsule is opened. By the time the amalgam is placed in your tooth, the mercury has formed a compound with the other metals. It is no longer toxic.

Balanced Scorecard Essay

A balanced scorecard is very helpful to any organization and should be viewed as a very important document throughout the company. Wal-Mart has developed a scorecard so that their customers can see what goals that the company wants to achieve and also how to achieve those goals. If you look at the scorecard on a regular basis, then you will know exactly how your company is running and what areas you need to work on. Wal-Mart wants everyone to know where to look at their scorecard and how to achieve the goals that they feel will make them even more successful. Wal-Mart also expects that every employee should follow this scorecard to guarantee they are doing the right things to make the company grow even faster and stronger than they already are (Balanced Scorecard Basics, 2014). The financial part is a very important part to Wal-Mart. With this part being successful you will be able to pay all the employees the right amount and also pay all the bills so that the company can make more money and keep thriving in the world today. Also with the financials down, the shareholders will see an increase in the amount of what the shares are selling for and that lets them know what they are making for owning those shares in the company. A competitive position is a major key within a huge retail chain like Wal-Mart. They are number one compared to other store chains similar to them. They continue building stores all over the world while a lot of the competitors keep shutting their stores down. Staying atop of this list is what makes Wal-Mart the leader in general merchandising stores (Wal-Mart Stores, 2013). Another major area of a balanced scorecard is how the customers see what Wal-Mart is doing. This is the most important part other than the  financials but work hand in hand with the financials. If the customers see Wal-Mart as a bad company then they will not buy the items that Wal-Mart is selling and then Wal-Mart will not be able to afford their bills and payroll and eventually have to close down. If they see Wal-Mart as a great place to shop then they will tell everyone that they know to shop there and that will make the revenue rise and make more profit for the company so that they can become even more successful in the future. The customers perspective always pays a big role in any company, if you keep them happy, then the will spend more money and time and energy with your company instead of your competitors (Balanced Scorecard Basics, 2014). Innovation is what you need to do to improve the company and learn how to grow and become a stronger economy. Wal-Mart is trying to be innovative in how they get their ads out to the general public. They are starting to email adds out to individuals emails letting their customers know of great deals and opportunities that are coming up in the local stores (Balanced Scorecard Basics, 2014). They are also developing an app for the smart phones of today with the deals and specials going on within the company. They are trying to get their products and service out in the community. Last but not least are the internal methods. They look at areas they think they will excel in and also the areas that will not excel so much at. The areas that Wal-Mart plans to excel at are usually the electronics. They look at other ideas to help them excel even more than usually and develop a plan to implement how to excel further in these areas. The Ares that are weak, they look for reasons that they are weak and how can they implement a plan to make those areas excel in also. When they can get all the areas in the store to excel greatly then they will become very successful and continue to grow beyond measure. This paper has demonstrated how a strategic plan of a balanced scorecard can help any company grow to a different standard. With these scorecard in effect and followed out completely then any company will succeed in everything that they want to do and become very successful. References Wal-Mart Stores. (2013, November 6). Retrieved March 31, 2014, from Forbes. Balanced Scorecard Basics. (2014). Retrieved March 31, 2014, from Balanced Scorecard INstitute: https://balancedscorecard.org/Resources/AbouttheBalancedScorecard/tabid/55/Default.aspx

How To Lose Weight Without Feeling Deprived Article

How To Lose Weight Without Feeling Deprived - Article Example With this said, I would like to set a different kind of sustainable weight loss program that would last and even motivate me to do more without having to feel deprived. My game plan would be best laid down through the use of the S.M.A.R.T strategy. Specific: I would like to set a program that will make me reach my ideal weight which is 115 pounds as proportionate to my height and at the same time feel stronger, increase my agility, and develop a leaner body. I would start making this happen by talking to a professional gym trainer to assess my body and develop a customized program considering my fitness goals. The gym that I would choose to enroll in would be one that offers different classes as well, as I am inclined to dancing, zumba, and yoga. This I believe would not only be a strong motivational factor to go to the gym but at the same time would exercise all parts of my body. Measureable: Based on my experience in going to the gym, one would need to look forward to something or encouraged along the journey for one to want to keep going. One of the techniques to do so would be to measure the success one is making to get one excited and to keep the routine going. In my case, I would want to measure the body fat that I am losing instead of measuring my weight. This is because of the fact that some people may weight more than others but does not necessarily mean they are healthier. Since ultimate health is my utmost goal it would be best to measure how much fat I lost. Aside from that, I would also like to measure the level of commitment I give to working out by simply counting how many days I would miss in my MWF workout schedule. I would be able to know if I have already reached my fitness goals by constantly checking with the weighing scale and using the BMI calculator. Â  

Government role in a market economy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Government role in a market economy - Essay Example The need of the hour is to have a proper system in place which shall form the basis of immense success for the sake of the organization and hence the government of the land needs to play its quintessential role nonetheless. Moving ahead with the debate, how the government comes into the equation is an interesting debate. This is because the government is usually held responsible for all the actions and undertakings that are being taken on the national level, and thus the brunt is dropped on its head whenever there are serious issues that come to the surface (Rao, 1998). How the government copes with the pressure that is exerted upon it is something that must be understood within the related settings. Proper arrangements should be made to guarantee that these are followed by the organizations within the country, and that success comes about in full circle within the related aegis. The government must give subsidies, lower the taxes and provide relief in different forms – all of which should embody the basis of attaining harmony within a free market economy. ... hat the negativities with regards to the free market structures are taken care of, and if there still exist any further problems, the same are handled in an amicable way. This will resolve the ambiguities that exist within the related fore as well as take care of the free market economic realms in the long run. The government makes sure that the ant-trust laws are reinforced and thus the promulgation of the same would mean success for the sake of the organization in the long run. It would also mean that the government plays its significant part within the protecting of property rights for the free market economic domains and realizes its due role within making the market a freely accessible one. This highlights the proactive role of the government and how it would delve deep into building trust and credibility within its related regimes. The government provides a stable fiscal and monetary environment which shall bring a lot of respect for the government in the long range but what it will really do is to encourage the stakeholders to give in their best time and time again. The political stability is preserved if the government realizes its role towards building the free market scenarios which are indeed something that can go down well within the organizational and indeed the industrial concerns. The role of the free market economic stakeholders is directly dependent on how the government shapes up its own self. If the government realizes its responsibility towards building the economic undertakings, then this would that it is playing its part in a very proactive fashion. However, when this does not happen, there are bound to be serious irregularities. What is most important is to know that such measures would mean failure of the economic undertakings that exist within

Aristotle Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Aristotle - Essay Example These are essentially two different systems believing and advocating in values that are quite different. They are not absolute systems, and hence might have their share of problems. Yet, Aristotle insists on comparing the voids between both theories as the same, by exemplifying that "all existing things do not have the same elements", thereby propagating the fact, that these two theorists may not have explained the concept in entirety. Precisely this last criticism by Aristotle also ironically becomes a criticism for his own critique. He questions in the book, "If forms are numbers, in what sense will they be causes. If ideas are numbers, how are they composed." This is precisely the point. The two theories are not compatible with each other, and hence their criticism on parallel grounds is also uncalled for. There is much more to their concept when taken individually, when taken both in forms of theory and practice even today. However, making a critical comparison of two notions, one of whom represents a numerical construct, while other propagates the concept of ideas as forms, seems harsh. The possible reason why this might have been done by Aristotle in the first place, is because he may be looking for 'voids' which have not been explained by these two great thinkers, so that when he would explain his own notions, they would be an 'addition' to the bank of knowledge, and not just a concurrence. Question 2 Both Aristotle (in Metaphysics Book I) and Lucretius (in On the Nature of the Universe), stress upon the usages of the sensory means for the processes and possibilities of gaining knowledge. They believe, that it is through the senses, that knowledge is gained, or simply, information about the... Both Aristotle (in Metaphysics Book I) and Lucretius, stress upon the usages of the sensory means for the processes and possibilities of gaining knowledge. They believe, that it is through the senses, that knowledge is gained, or simply, information about the outside world comes inside. The importance and value of every sense are unique in its own right, as elaborated by both, in that the domain of the eye cannot be overtaken by the ear. Aristotle puts forth the point that â€Å"all men naturally desire knowledge. [However there exist] degrees of intelligence, sense-perception, memory, experience, art, and experience†. This variation in processes of acquiring knowledge actually points out to the ability to gain, assimilate and reproduce knowledge. He went on to describe four kinds of ‘cause’, namely: formal, material, efficient and final. On the other hand, Lucretius also explains the nature of â€Å"vision, hearing, taste, and smell†, and the way things enter the mind and how the mind works. He explains at length the processes through which he believes information goes into the mental system, and also how each sense is performing their task in an exclusive way. However, there are certain variations between both schools of thought when it comes to the connotation of the truthfulness of the knowledge gained. Aristotle believed, that â€Å"wisdom is the knowledge of certain causes and principles†. He tried to present a rationale for the wise man, in that there would be an innate ability to reason better than the rest.

Documentary film Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Documentary film - Movie Review Example I thought that Ben Bernanke and Henry Paulson were correct in wanting to prevent institutions such as Behr Sterns, Fannie Mae, Freddie Mac and Lehman Brothers from going bankrupt. It appeared that if one financial institution was allowed to fail than a domino effect would begin to occur. In many cases, that did begin to happen when there was a refusal to bail out Lehman Brothers. When Lehman Brothers failed, it froze a lot of money for banks to lend out for short-term loans, which in effect halted a lot of the commerce that occurs within the country on a daily basis. The compromise of preventing Behr Stern from going bankrupt by selling their stock shares off to JP Morgan for $2 per share seemed like an extreme measure initially. However after some thought, it was probably the best option for both the company, the economy and the Federal Reserve. While all parties wanted to avoid adverse effects of Behr Stern going bankrupt, selling off the shares for such a low price definitely sent a message that this type of assistance from the Federal Reserve to fix these types of faulty business practices would come with consequences. There was also a lot of criticism towards the idea of giving capital injections to bail out large institutions, such as giving $80 billion to AIG to prevent them from going bankrupt or covering the $30 billion in toxic assets to Behr Stern. I understand the arguments against the idea, however I do not think that some of the arguments were made on fact and were made more on political principle. For example, many in Congress did not want to support the bill to give money to bail out the financial companies because they felt it went against the idea of free and open markets. While giving money to private companies did go against the idea of a free market economy, there were many experts and evidence showing that a bailout

Writer's choice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 30

Writer's choice - Essay Example The efforts were unfruitful and the application was still denied (Goslett andn Caruso, 2015). The application was denied because Mr. Donker did not meet the IRPA 2002 requirements. The immigration officer did not accept the application because at the first time, he applied on arrival to Canada and could not be given permanent resident right. The relationship which he started was seen as an effort to be given the permission for permanent resident. Though Mr. Donker started a conjugal relationship with Ms. Fernanda in order to be considered as a permanent resident, the court still rejected the application. Mr. Donker could have started a lawful marriage or get married according to Canadian marriage act in order to be considered a citizen and have is application accepted. The court could not consider the two years relationship but is Ms. Fernanda could be his legal wife the court would have considered his request (Government of Canada,

A determination on the cost efectiveness of temporary employees for a Essay

A determination on the cost efectiveness of temporary employees for a manufacturing company - Essay Example In this study, several items will be considered while analyzing the cost effectiveness of temporary workers. First, an overall analysis of the benefits as well as the drawbacks of temporary workers will be presented in comparison to the hiring of full-time employees. The presentation of this analysis will demonstrate that hiring temporary workers is, in fact, more beneficial for companies when trying to cut costs.Temporary workers allow for companies to adapt to fluctuating markets, and give them some control in an economy that has not provided much earning incentive. In order to resolve this and to adapt to changing times, temporary workers can be hired and maintained by companies for as long as needed. Skilled contingent workers are included in this study. While skilled contingent workers are often paid more than other temporary workers, and often more than full-time workers as well, their use still allows the company to save money. This is because they are usually brought on for s hort term projects, and then released when the projects are completed. The large salaries or hourly wages earned by skilled contingent workers thus will end, and the company can return to normal expenditure. There would therefore be no need to bring on another full-time employee to handle certain skilled situations that are needed for specific periods of time only, and this has helped to keep costs down for many companies. This study examined three companies throughout a one year, four quarter period. Costs were analyzed and determined as the companies transitioned into using more and more contingent workers. The results of this study demonstrate that companies achieved cost-cutting results that increased every quarter for each company that participated in the study. Therefore, this study helps to prove that temporary workers, whether skilled or not, can be used to help cut the costs of company finances. Based on the findings, it appears that the use of temporary workers does, in fa ct, cut costs for companies. Therefore, the key recommendations of this study are for companies to use temporary employees in order to save money in a worsening economy. TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT 3 CHAPTER I. Statement of the Problem 5 Statement of the Problem 5 Purpose of the Study 5 Research Objectives 5 II. LITERATURE REVIEW 6 Temporary Employees 6 Core Reasons and Responsibilities of the Temporary Agency 7 Core Reasons and Responsibilities of the Organization 8 Core Responsibility of the Temporary Employees 11 III. METHODOLOGY 13 IV. Data analysis 14 Who Are the Temporary Workers 14 What Jobs do Temporary Workers Perform 17 How Often Are They Used 18 Overview of the Model 20 Is Training and Hiring Employees Cost Effective 25 Company 1 - Illustration 26 Company 2 - Illustration 27 Company 3 - Illustration 27 V. Summary, CONCLUSION, Recommendations 28 VI. 28 REFERENCES 33 Refer to the Student Guide for formatting and titles of chapters, etc. Chapter 1: Statement of the Problem Due to the rise of the global economy, technological advancement and the growth of the service economy have promoted changes in the way organizations do business (Camerman, Cropanzano, & Vandenberghe, 2007). These require that business develop the ability to respond flexibly to the fast-changing environments. One such strategic decision is whether to engage temporary employ

Non-Western Christianity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Non-Western Christianity - Essay Example The Middle East is the foundation of Christianity, Judaism and Islam religion. The Old Testament prophesies the coming of Jesus Christ in the book of Isaiah. It also presents the Ten Commandments foundation of Judaism and Christianity. Despite Christianity acknowledging the death and resurrection of Jesus, it is also highly influenced by Judaism. Most Christians living in the Middle East still practice traditional Christianity (Armstrong, 87). There was great division among the traditional Christians in the period between the seventh to the thirteenth century. This resulted to establishment of western/Latin Christian branch (that is the Roman Church) and the Eastern/Greek branch (that is the Orthodox Church). These two sides had several differences and similarities. In both churches the nature of prayers as well as the physical gestures remained the same (Bailey, 49). In addition, baptism regeneration was recognized by both churches as a way of creating or strengthening an individual’s faith. In conclusion, the Roman and the Orthodox Church used similar religious symbols such as the cross, the dove (to symbolize Holy Spirit), the vine (to symbolize the connection of Christ and the church) among others. However, there exist differences in terms of liturgical calendar. The liturgical calendar of Western Church is analogous and is based on the Catholic Church cycles which commemorate all the events that occurred in the life of Jesus Christ. On the other hand, the liturgical calendar of Eastern Church is based on celebrations of Christ’s birth, death, resurrection and Pentecost (Bailey,

Business plan for a media product - The Reading Series Essay

Business plan for a media product - The Reading Series - Essay Example with Riverbank technical manager Paul Winters, the series was first commissioned by then Riverbank manager Denis Clifford in 2004 and it was commissioned again by previous Riverbank manager Marcella Bannon in 2005, in 2006 commissioned again by new manager John O’Brien and due to its success in the community, has been commissioned again for another series by existing Riverbank manager John O’Brien to run for three years. We are planning to form a company which will be working formally on these footings and would engage into professional activities of arranging such gatherings all over the place in order to bring out the most amazing talents of the world and In doing so we believe that we will not only be serving the art but also providing healthy and competitive entertainment to our consumers. We believe that our company will be one of its own as it will offer unique opportunities to brightest talents with ready access to those who can provide them opportunities to show their talent. Our basic aim therefore would be to form a link between the writers and the professional publishers who can publish the talents identified by us. â€Å"The Riverbank Reading Series aims to introduce the community to various types of literature (fiction, non-fiction, columns, journalism and to a lesser extent poetry) by having a broad range of authors, writers and journalists read from their work. We aim to keep our audiences happy and entertained by accompanying readings with video projections, lighting and music and by generally creating a relaxed atmosphere of fun and humor. We also aim to keep the evenings short and sweet (an hour or so) so that the readings can be given their full attention by the audience.† Our company will be primarily a small scale company with initial paid up capital of Euro 1.000 Million. We will be a small scale company with employee level of just 25 people in its initial phase however we intend to increase our human resource base by recruiting our

Integrated research Essay Example for Free

Integrated research Essay Introduction A family comprises of mother, father, children, grandparents and others united together by blood or adoption. A family results from a marriage. Family structures are built through marriage and that is why it is said that proper marriages lead to proper families . The family functions that are outlined in marriage settings are almost similar and that the challenges that are experienced in the marriage are those challenges that will eventually impact negatively on the family. This research will outline various challenges that marriage as a practical identity possesses and their eventual implications in the family. Marriage Marriage can be defined as the interpersonal relationship between most commonly a man and woman who are united legally via social, religious are or governmental recognition. There are different types of marriages; †¢ Arranged marriages-this is where marriage partners are chosen by the society e. g. monarchies †¢ Boston marriage-marriage between two partners not necessarily for sex e. g. between two women. †¢ Common-law marriage- involves a class of interpersonal status where people united by a common believe on marriage law marry on that basis †¢ Digital marriage-a kind of marriage where two people with no connection in their ‘gaming’ lives come together within a virtual community and declare that they are married †¢ Covenant marriage- in this case two people come together as partners in union and make a long life commitment for the marriage. Divorce is made more difficult here. In some jurisdictions, the legal concept of marriage has been recently expanded to emerging social beliefs such as same sex marriages. Marriages are considered part and parcel human stage of life and most people believe that at one point in their lives they should get married. People marry for different reasons ranging from; to achieve social and economic stability, to have and nurture children, to form a family unit and finally to legitimize sexual relations. Marriage is considered the main factor and the pillar of a family. Better families result from better marriages as the people involved are given enough guidance to form the next generation of the family. The persons in the family learn good values and teachings from their parents hence this will ensure that any subsequent marriages are strong and stable. Contemporary critics also suggest that modern marriages have become extremely very disadvantageous for women. When it comes to economic or social considerations, women do not compare with women. Contrastingly, the continued bias towards women will mean that in the near future, mean will be on the other side of the fence-where women were in the last century. This is evident from the fact that modern policies and divorce laws have been specifically designed to protect women. However, with the emergence of same sex rights, the situation will be more complicated due to the legal prohibitions and social taboos that deny the practices full recognition. Loss Loss of one of the marriage partner leads to termination of the marriage . Loss may result form death, divorce or any other factor that will mean that one of them is left alone. This is usually disastrous for the family setting where one parent or spouse is left alone to meet all the family requirements, in a case where the children still young and need to be taken care in terms of education provision, health, love, shelter etc. Grief usually results from loss and it is very various legal systems and societal family arrangements offer different legal directions and guidance on handling properties (finances, assets etc. ) developed by the couple incase one dies or incase of a divorce. Some cultures believe that both the wife and the husband are entitled to equal property rights. Other societies also prohibit children especially the girls from inheriting the family’s assets including land. A widow may also lose family property if she decides to remarry. Partners in a marriage are jointly responsible and liable for the debts of the marriage practice and therefore if there is any misunderstanding on the responsibility of the same, then, it might be solved on an individual basis. The era of the myth ‘doctrine of necessities’ where the husband remains the sole provider for the family is gone. Today, all partners in the marriage share responsibilities equally depending on the income generation level of each.

Natural Recycling of Aggregate

Natural Recycling of Aggregate Introduction For many years peoples have been trying to keep the environmental clean and mention the natural balance of life. The scientific studies provide us the information and methods to achieve these objectives and the recycling of waste and by product materials represent the main role in these studies [1-4]. As a result of reconstruction of existing buildings and pavements, wars and natural disasters such as earthquakes the amount of construction and demolition materials are increasing every year. At the same time approval of additional facilities for waste disposal or treatment are become more difficult to obtain. Furthermore increasing restrictive environmental regulations have made waste disposal more difficult and expensive. Also the available natural aggregate in some countries decreases and may be become insufficient for the construction projects in these countries in the future [5]. So, the reuse of construction and demolition materials in construction has benefits not only in reducing the amount of materials requiring disposal but also can provide construction materials with significant saving of the original materials. According to the third Building Waste Monitoring Report [6], there is an increase in the recorded amount of building waste in the sectors of the building debris, road scarification and building site waste. It has arisen in Germany by 11.5 million tons, from 77.1 million tons in the period 1997/1998 to 88.6 million tons in the period 1999/2000. According to Rahlwes and Schmidt [7, 8], for concrete only, the annual crushed concrete quantity in west Germany only is about 30 million tones and in the European Union is approximately 130 million ton. Due to intensive building activities in the last decades, these amounts are expected to considerably increase after the year 2000. The properties of recycled coarse aggregate with a grain size above 4 mm and its reuse in concrete production and pavements construction have been evaluated and described in many. It has been estimated that approximately 50 million tons of concrete are currently demolished each year in the European Economic Communities [1], Equivalent figures are 60 million tons in the United States ([2], [3]), and in Japan [12] the total quantity of concrete debris available for recycling on some scale is about 10 to 12 million tons. Very little demolished concrete is currently recycled or reused anywhere in the world. The small quantity which is recovered is mainly reused as unstabilized base or subbase in highway construction. The rest is dumped or disposed of as fill. For Environmental and other reasons the number of readily accessible disposal sites around major cities in the world has decreased in recent years. Both disposals volume and maximum sizes of wastes have been restricted. In Japan disposal charges from USD 3 to 10 per ton are not uncommon. Moreover, distances between demolition sites and disposal areas have become larger and transportation costs higher. At the same time critical shortages of good natural aggregate is developing in many urban areas, and distances between deposits of natural material and sites of new construction have grown larger, and transportation costs have become correspondingly higher, It is estimated that between now and year 2,000, three times more demolished concrete will be generated each year than is today. For these reasons it can be foreseen that demolition contractors will come under considerable economic and other pressure to process demolished concrete for reuse as unscreened gravel, base and subbase materials, aggregates for production of new concrete or for other useful purposes. Large-scale recycling of demolished concrete will contribute not only to the solution of a growing waste disposal problem. It will also help to conserve natural resources of sand and gravel and to secure future supply of reasonably priced aggregates for building and road construction purposes within large urban areas of the world. Applications of Recycled Aggregate The recycled concrete aggregate shown in Figure 1.1 can be defined as crushed concrete composed of aggregate fragments coated with cement paste or cement mortar from the demolition of the old structures or pavements that has been processed to produce aggregates suitable for use in new concrete. The processing, as with many natural aggregates, generally involves crushing, grading and washing. This removes contaminant materials such as reinforcing steel, remnants of formwork, gypsum board, and other foreign materials. The resulting coarse aggregate is then suitable for use in concrete. The fine aggregate, however, generally contains a considerable amount of old cement paste and mortar. This tends to increase the drying shrinkage and creep properties of the new concrete, as well as leading to problems with unworkable mix and strength. Therefore, many transportation departments have found that using 100% coarse recycled aggregate but with only about 10% to 20% recycled fines works well. Regarding the results of most of the previous research that has been done so far, the application of Recycled Aggregate is mostly currently in low quality/strength concrete, for example, pavement base and slab rather than used in structural concrete. The most common application of Recycled Concrete Aggregate is the use in concrete sub-base in road construction, bank protection, noise barriers and embankments, many types of general bulk fills and fill materials for drainage structures. After the removal of contaminants through selective demolition, screening, and/or air separation and size reduction in a crusher to aggregate sizes, crushed concrete can be used as new concrete for pavements, shoulders, median barriers, sidewalks, curbs and gutters, and bridge foundations; structural grade concrete; soil-cement pavement bases; moulded concrete bricks and blocks; bituminous concrete etc. However, there is an example of recycled concrete being used for part of the structural slabs in a high-rise building in Japan but there was no too much detail available on this project. According to research that has been conducted in Australia, current use of recycled aggregates is still only around 7% of road construction material in South Australia. Victoria Road also use recycled aggregate for their road base construction projects in Victoria but MainRoads in Queensland does not currently. Traditionally, the application of recycled aggregate is used as landfill. Nowadays, the applications of recycled aggregate in construction areas are wide. The applications are different from country to country. Concrete Kerb and Gutter Mix Recycled aggregate have been used as concrete kerb and gutter mix in Australia. According to Building Innovation Construction Technology (1999), Stone says that the 10mm recycled aggregate and blended recycled sand are used for concrete kerb and gutter mix in the Lent hall Street project in Sydney. Granular Base Course Materials According to Market Development Study for Recycled Aggregate Products (2001), recycled aggregate are used as granular base course in the road construction. It also stated that recycled aggregate had proved that better than natural aggregate when used as granular base course in roads construction. They also found that when the road is built on the wet sub grade areas, recycled aggregate will stabilize the base and provide an improved working surface for pavement structure construction. Embankment Fill Materials Market Development Study for Recycled Aggregate Products (2001) stated that recycled aggregate can be used in embankment fill. The reason for being able to use in embankment fill is same as it is used in granular base course construction. The embankment site is on the wet sub grade areas. Recycled aggregate can stabilize the base and provide an improved working surface for the remaining works. Paving Blocks Recycled aggregate have been used as paving blocks in Hong Kong. According to Hong Kong Housing Department (n.d.), recycled aggregate are used as typical paving blocks. A trial project had been started to test the long – term performance of paving blocks made with recycled aggregate in 2002. Backfill Materials Recycled aggregate can be used as backfill materials. Mehus and Lillestol (n.d) found that Norwegian Building Research Institute (n.d) mentioned that recycled concrete aggregate can be used as backfill materials in the pipe zone along trenches after having testing in laboratory. Building Blocks Recycled aggregate used as building blocks. Mehus and Lillestol (n.d) stated that Optiroc AS had used recycled aggregate to produce the masonry sound insulation blocks. The masonry sound insulation blocks that produced had met all the requirements during the laboratory testing. International Status Mehus and Lillestol (n.d.) stated that RESIBA had constructed a new high school in Sorumsand, outside the city of Oslo, Norway in 2001. Recycled concrete aggregate had been used in this project. Thirty – five percent of coarse aggregate were replaced by recycled concrete aggregate in the foundations, half of the basement walls and columns. Several tests were conducted based on fresh and hardened concrete properties and the results shown that the concrete with thirty – five percent of recycled concrete aggregate have good freeze – thaw resistance. The use of recycled concrete aggregate did not shown any noticeable increase in cracking. According to Grubl, Nealen and Schmidt (n.d.), there is a building project, the â€Å"Waldspirale† by Friedensreich Hundertwasser, made from concrete with recycled aggregate in Darmstadf from November 1998 to September 1999. Numerous tests were evaluated for freshly missed and also hardened concrete properties. The result shown that the consistency controlled method for concrete with recycled aggregate is applicable. And it leads to concrete of equal quality when compared with concrete made from natural aggregate. According to Regain (1993/94), recycled aggregate were used as capping and sub-base layers in housing development at North Bracknell, UK in 1993/94. Visual inspections and condition surveys were carried out by using the falling weight deflectometer in 1998. The result shown that the sections with recycled aggregate did not show any difference in appearance compared to the sections that using natural aggregate. The tests gave the larger values of elastic modulus in the recycled aggregate sections. According to Regain (2001), footway paving slabs are being replaced gradually in London Borough of Bexley. Recycled aggregate are used as coarse aggregate in the concrete mix with a 12:1 aggregate to cement mix Advantages There are many advantages through using the recycled aggregate. The advantages that occur through usage of recycled aggregate are listed below. Environmental Gain The major advantage is based on the environmental gain. According to CSIRO (n.d.), construction and demolition waste makes up to around 40% of the total waste each year (estimate around 14 million tones) going to land fill. Through recycled these material, it can keep diminishing the resources of urban aggregated. Therefore, natural aggregate can be used in higher –grade applications. Save Energy The recycling process can be done on site. According to Kajima Technical Research Institute (2002), Kajima is developing a method of recycling crushed concrete that used in the construction, known as the Within-Site Recycling System. Everything can be done on the construction site through this system, from the process of recycled aggregate, manufacture and use them. This can save energy to transport the recycled materials to the recycling plants. Cost Secondly is based on the cost. The cost of recycled aggregate is cheaper than virgin aggregate. According to PATH Technology Inventory (n.d.), the costs of recycled concrete aggregate are sold around $3.50 to $7.00 per cubic yard. It depends on the aggregate size limitation and local availability. This is just around one and half of the cost for natural aggregate that used in the construction works. The transportation cost for the recycled aggregate is reduced due to the weight of recycled aggregate is lighter than virgin aggregate. Concrete Network (n.d) stated that recycling concrete from the demolition projects can saves the costs of transporting the concrete to the land fill (around $0.25 per ton/ mile), and the cost of disposal (around $100 per ton). Beside that, Aggregate Advisory Service (n.d.) also state that the recycling site may accept the segregates materials at lower cost than landfill without tax levy and recycled aggregate can be used at lower prices than primary aggregate in the construction works. Job Opportunities There will be many people involved in this new technology, such as specialized and skilled persons, general workers, drivers and etc. According to Scottish Executive (2004), a Scottish Market Development Program is developed. The purpose of this program is to recycle the materials that arising in Scotland. This program will provide 150 new jobs in the Scottish industry. Sustainability The amount of waste materials used for landfill will be reducing through usage of recycled aggregate. This will reduce the amount of quarrying. Therefore this will extend the lives of natural resources and also extend the lives of sites that using for landfill. Market is Wide The markets for recycled concrete aggregate are wide. According to Environmental Council of Concrete Organization (n.d), recycled concrete aggregate can be used for sidewalk, curbs, bridge substructures and superstructures, concrete shoulders, residential driveways, general and structural fill. It also mentioned that recycled concrete aggregate can be used in sub bases and support layers such as unstabilized base and permeable bases. Disadvantages Although there are many advantages by using recycled aggregate. But there are still some disadvantages in recycled aggregate. Hard to have permit Jacobsen (1999) stated that it is hard to get the permit for the machinery that needed air permit or permit to operate during the recycling process. These has to depend on the local or state regulations whether this technology is implemented or not. Lack of Specification and Guidelines According to Kawano (n.d), there is no specification or any guideline when using recycled concrete aggregate in the constructions. In many cases, the strength characteristic will not meet the requirement when using recycled concrete aggregate. Therefore, more testing should be considered when using recycled concrete aggregate. Water Pollution The recycled process will cause water pollution. Morris of National Ready Mix Concrete Association (n.d) had mentioned that the wash out water with the high pH is a serious environmental issue. According to Building Green (1993), the alkalinity level of wash water from the recycling plants is pH12. This water is toxic to the fish and other aquatic life. Project Aim The aim for this on – going project is to determine the strength characteristic of recycled aggregate for application in high strength structural concrete, which will give a better understanding on the properties of concrete with recycled aggregate, where can be an alternative material to coarse aggregate in structural concrete. Project Scope Review and research of recycled aggregate. Construct the concrete specimens by using different percentage of recycled aggregate. Investigation and laboratory testing on high strength concrete with recycled aggregate. Analysis the results and recommendation for further research area. Dissertation Overview This dissertation is structured in the following format. Chapter 2 provides a review of relevant literature, overview of recycling process, as well as comparison of recycled aggregate and natural aggregate. This chapter also discussed the previous investigation and testing done with recycled aggregate. Chapter 3 includes the preliminary design and information on the recycled  aggregate testing and design of the concrete mix. Chapter 4 describes the experimental methodology carried out in order to obtain the required data. Chapter 5 discusses the results and analysis of all experimental results obtained from the testing procedures. Chapter 6 contains the conclusions of the research and recommendations on further work. Literature review of Recycled Aggregate Literature review of Recycled Aggregate Conventional concrete aggregate consists of sand (fine aggregate) and various sizes and shapes of gravel or stones. However, there is a growing interest in substituting alternative aggregate materials, largely as a potential use for recycled materials. While there is significant research on many different materials for aggregate substitutes (such as granulated coal ash, blast furnace slag or various solid wastes including fiberglass waste materials, granulated plastics, paper and wood products / wastes, sintered sludge pellets and others), the only two that have been significantly applied are glass cullet and crushed recycled concrete itself. Even though aggregate typically accounts for 70% to 80% of the concrete volume, it is commonly thought of as inert filler having little effect on the finished concrete properties. However, research has shown that aggregate in fact plays a substantial role in determining workability, strength, dimensional stability, and durability of the concrete. Also, aggregates can have a significant effect on the cost of the concrete mixture. Certain aggregate parameters are known to be important for engineered-use concrete: hardness, strength, and durability. The aggregate must be clean, without absorbed chemicals, clay coatings, and other fine materials in concentrations that could alter the hydration and bond of the cement paste. It is important to note the difference between aggregate and cement, because some materials have found use both as a cementitious material and as aggregate (such as certain blast furnace slags). Materials that have been researched or applied only as cement substitutes are addressed in another Technology Inventory article Cement Substitutes. Aggregate composed of recycled concrete generally has a lower specific gravity and a higher absorption than conventional gravel aggregate. New concrete made with recycled concrete aggregate typically has good workability, durability and resistance to saturated freeze-thaw action. The compressive strength varies with the compressive strength of the original concrete and the water-cement ratio of the new concrete. It has been found that concrete made with recycled concrete aggregate has at least two-thirds the compressive strength and modulus of elasticity of natural aggregate concrete. Field-testing has shown that crushed and screened waste glass may be used as a sand substitute in concrete. Nearly all waste glass can be used in concrete applications, including glass that is unsuitable for uses such as glass bottle recycling. Some of the specific glass waste materials that have found use as fine aggregate are non-recyclable clear window glass and fluorescent bulbs with very small amounts of contaminants. Possible applications for such waste-glass concrete are bike paths, footpaths, gutters and similar non-structural work. Lack of widespread reliable data on aggregate substitutes can hinder its use. To design consistent, durable recycled aggregate concrete, more testing is required to account for variations in the aggregate properties. Also, recycled aggregate generally has a higher absorption and a lower specific gravity than conventional aggregate. Research has revealed that the 7-day and 28-day compressive strengths of recycled aggregate concrete are generally lower than values for conventional concrete. Moreover, recycled aggregates may be contaminated with residual quantities of sulfate from contact with sulfate rich soil and chloride ions from marine exposure. Glass aggregate in concrete can be problematic due to the alkali silica reaction between the cement paste and the glass aggregate, which over time can lead to weakened concrete and decreased long-term durability. Research has been done on types of glass and other additives to stop or decrease the alkali silica reaction and thereby maintain finished concrete strength. However, further research is still needed before glass cullet can be used in structural concrete applications. The applications of recycled aggregate in highway construction as a road base material are very board and have been in use for almost 100 years. There has been much research based on the use of recycled aggregate that has been carried out all around the world. The research on recycled aggregate that has been carried out indicated that the successful application of crushed aggregate in concrete can be achieved. This successful research has been achieved in many countries, in particular in Europe; United States; Japan and China. This chapter presents literature reviews on the effects of various factors on the recycled aggregate from research from those countries. The major objective of most of the experiments or research on recycled aggregate is to find out the results in the strength characteristic area and what is the best method to achieve high strength concrete with recycled aggregate. Strengths of Recycled Aggregate Concrete Made Using Field- Demolished Concrete as Aggregate Tavakoli M. (1996) studied the compressive; splitting tensile and flexural strengths of 100% recycled coarse aggregate concrete and 100% natural sand to compare them with normal concrete made of natural crushed stone. The water-cement ratio was 0.3 and 0.4 in the concrete mix design. The test result shows the compressive, tensile and flexural strengths of RCA are little higher than the natural aggregate at the same size of 25.4mm at 28-day specimen. This indicates that if the compressive strength of the original concrete that is being recycled is higher than that of the control concrete, then the recycled aggregate concrete can also be made to achieve higher compressive strength than the control concrete. The results also indicates increase L.A. abrasion loss and water absorption capacity of recycled aggregates, which partly reflect the increased amount of water, adhering to the original stone aggregate, generally lead to reduced compressive strength of recycled aggregate concrete. Dhir et al. (1998) studied the effect of the cleanliness and percentage of the replacement of RCA. They found out that the degree of cleanliness of aggregate has significantly affected on the results of the properties of both the plastic and hardened concrete. The workability and compressive strengths both were lower than the quarried aggregate from 17% to 78% depending on the percentage of replacement of RCA. The results also indicated recycled aggregate has very high air content. Limbachiya and Leelawat (2000) found that recycled concrete aggregate had 7 to 9% lower relative density and 2 times higher water absorption than natural aggregate. According to their test results, it shown that there was no effect with the replacement of 30% coarse recycled concrete aggregate used on the ceiling strength of concrete. It also mentioned that recycled concrete aggregate could be used in high strength concrete mixes with the recycled concrete aggregate content in the concrete. Sagoe, Brown and Taylor (2002) stated that the difference between the characteristic of fresh and hardened recycled aggregate concrete and natural aggregate concrete is relatively narrower than reported for laboratory crush recycled aggregate concrete mixes. There was no difference at the 5% significance level in concrete compressive and tensile strength of recycled concrete and control normal concrete made from natural aggregate. Limbachiya (2003) found that there is no effect by using up to 30% of coarse recycled concrete aggregate on the standard 100mm concrete cube compressive strength. But when the percentage of recycled concrete aggregate used increased, the compressive strength was reducing. Behavior of Construction and Demolition Debris in Base and Subbase Application Pappjr et al (1998) studied using recycled aggregates in Base and Subbase applications. They found that recycled concrete yielded higher resilient modulus than the dense graded aggregate currently used. Furthermore, the results have been shown that recycled concrete have less permanent deformation than dense graded aggregate. They concluded that recycled concrete could be a valuable alternative to natural materials for base and subbase applications. Influence of recycled aggregate quality on concrete properties Sanchez de Juan et al. (2000) studied what is the maximum percentage, from 20% to 100%, replacement of recycled aggregate in concrete. The results showed that the compressive strength of recycled concrete is lower than that of a control concrete with equal water/cement ratio and same cement content. Recycled concretes with a percentage of recycled coarse aggregate lower than 50% show decreases in the range 5-10%, while for concretes with 100% recycled aggregates, decreases ranged from 10-15%. Experimental results also indicated that properties of conventional concretes and recycled concretes with same compressive strength when less than 20% of recycled coarse aggregate are used. The exception being modulus of elasticity was decreased until 10% can be found in recycled concretes. When the percentage of recycled aggregate is lower than 50%, tensile strength and drying shrinkage of recycled concrete is similar to conventional concrete with same compressive strength. As a result of the testing, all properties of concrete with a 100% of recycled coarse aggregate are affected. Some studies on durability of recycled aggregate concrete Mandal et al. (2002) studied the durability of recycled aggregate concrete and found that recycled aggregate had less durability than natural aggregate. However, when 10 percent replacement of cement by fly ash was used with recycled aggregate, the durability observed was increased. It significantly improved the compressive strength up to 46.5MPa, reduced shrinkage and increased durability to a level comparable to natural aggregate. Therefore, the results of this study provide a strong support for the feasibility of using recycled aggregate instead of natural aggregate for the production of concrete. Use of recycled aggregates in molded concrete bricks and Blocks Poon et al. (2002) developed a technique to produce concrete bricks and paving blocks from recycled aggregates. The test result showed that replacing natural aggregate by 25% to 50% had little effect on the compressive strength, but higher levels of replacement reduced the compressive strength. The transverse strength increased as the percentage of recycled aggregate increased. The concrete paving blocks with a 28-day compressive strength of at least 49MPa can be produced without the incorporation of fly ash by using up to 100% recycled aggregate. According to the study, recycled aggregate has been used in structural engineering. For example, a viaduct and marine loch in the Netherlands in 1998 and an office building in England in 1999. The project in the Netherlands had shown that 20 percent of the coarse aggregate was replaced by recycled aggregate. The project also indicated even there are some disadvantage of recycled aggregate such as being too weak, more porous and that it has a very higher value of water absorption. However, the study showed that these weaknesses could be avoided by using mechanized moulded concrete bricks. The workability also could be improved by poring the mix into the mould. Therefore, the performance of the bricks and blocks was also satisfactory in the shrinkage and skid resistance tests. Concrete with Recycled materials as Coarse Aggregates: Shrinkage and Creep Behavior Tawrwe et al. (1999) compared limestone aggregate with concrete rubble. They found the concrete rubble had a very high water absorption compared to the limestone aggregate (0.74% against 6.83% of dry mass). Furthermore the porous aggregate absorbed water slowly in some tests. For example, it was difficult to determine accurately the amount of water that had to be added to obtain suitable workability. The critical shrinkage of the limestone aggregate concrete was higher than the concrete rubble, but after a year the shrinkage was greater for the concrete rubble based aggregate. Treatments for the improvement of recycled aggregate Katz (2004) stated two methods to improve the quality of the recycled aggregates. The superplasticizer (1% weight of silica fume) was added to the solution of 10L of water and 1 kg raw silica fume to ensure proper ispersion of silica fume particles. After the silica fume impregnation, the SF treatment seems to improve significantly the compressive strength up to 51MPa at ranged from 23% to 33% at 7 days of the recycled aggregate concrete. Ultrasonic cleaning of the recycled aggregate to remove the loose particles and improve the bond between the new cement paste and the recycled aggregate, which, in turn, increased 7% of strength. Kantawong and Laksana (1998) mentioned that the fineness modulus and percentage of water absorption used instead with the recycled aggregate is higher than natural aggregate. The results of compressive strength of added reduce water admixture concrete is higher than the one that not added reduce water admixture concrete, ane the compressive strength of concrete produced that using recycled aggregate is higher than concrete using natural coarse aggregate. Sawamoto and Takehino (2000) found that the strength of the recycled aggregate concrete can be increased by using Pozzolanic material that can absorb the water. Mandal (2002) stated that adjusted the water/cement ratio when using recycled concrete aggregate during the concrete mixing can improved the strength of the recycled aggregate concrete specimens. From the obtained result, recycled aggregate concrete specimens had the same engineering and durability performance when compared to the concrete specimens made by natural aggregate within 28days design strength. Chen and Kuan (2003) found that the strength of the concrete specimens was affected by the unwashed recycled aggregate in the concrete. The effect will more strange at the low water cement ratio. These effects can be improved by using the washed recycled aggregate. Construction and Demolition Waste Recycling Reuse as Aggregate in Concrete Production Limbachiya (2004) studied the properties of recycled aggregate compared with natural aggregates and found out the density of RCA is typically 4-8% lower and water absorption 2-6 times higher. The results showed that a reduction in slump value with increasing RCA concrete mix. The results also slowed that up to 30% coarse RCA has no effect on the standard concrete cube strength but thereafter a gradual reduction with increasing RCA content occurs. This means that some adjustment is necessary of the water/cement ratio to achieve the equivalent strength with high proportions of RCA. Review on Recycled Process This section discusses the recycling process and method. Recycling Plant Recycling plant normally located in the suburbs of cities due to the noise pollution that make by t Natural Recycling of Aggregate Natural Recycling of Aggregate Introduction For many years peoples have been trying to keep the environmental clean and mention the natural balance of life. The scientific studies provide us the information and methods to achieve these objectives and the recycling of waste and by product materials represent the main role in these studies [1-4]. As a result of reconstruction of existing buildings and pavements, wars and natural disasters such as earthquakes the amount of construction and demolition materials are increasing every year. At the same time approval of additional facilities for waste disposal or treatment are become more difficult to obtain. Furthermore increasing restrictive environmental regulations have made waste disposal more difficult and expensive. Also the available natural aggregate in some countries decreases and may be become insufficient for the construction projects in these countries in the future [5]. So, the reuse of construction and demolition materials in construction has benefits not only in reducing the amount of materials requiring disposal but also can provide construction materials with significant saving of the original materials. According to the third Building Waste Monitoring Report [6], there is an increase in the recorded amount of building waste in the sectors of the building debris, road scarification and building site waste. It has arisen in Germany by 11.5 million tons, from 77.1 million tons in the period 1997/1998 to 88.6 million tons in the period 1999/2000. According to Rahlwes and Schmidt [7, 8], for concrete only, the annual crushed concrete quantity in west Germany only is about 30 million tones and in the European Union is approximately 130 million ton. Due to intensive building activities in the last decades, these amounts are expected to considerably increase after the year 2000. The properties of recycled coarse aggregate with a grain size above 4 mm and its reuse in concrete production and pavements construction have been evaluated and described in many. It has been estimated that approximately 50 million tons of concrete are currently demolished each year in the European Economic Communities [1], Equivalent figures are 60 million tons in the United States ([2], [3]), and in Japan [12] the total quantity of concrete debris available for recycling on some scale is about 10 to 12 million tons. Very little demolished concrete is currently recycled or reused anywhere in the world. The small quantity which is recovered is mainly reused as unstabilized base or subbase in highway construction. The rest is dumped or disposed of as fill. For Environmental and other reasons the number of readily accessible disposal sites around major cities in the world has decreased in recent years. Both disposals volume and maximum sizes of wastes have been restricted. In Japan disposal charges from USD 3 to 10 per ton are not uncommon. Moreover, distances between demolition sites and disposal areas have become larger and transportation costs higher. At the same time critical shortages of good natural aggregate is developing in many urban areas, and distances between deposits of natural material and sites of new construction have grown larger, and transportation costs have become correspondingly higher, It is estimated that between now and year 2,000, three times more demolished concrete will be generated each year than is today. For these reasons it can be foreseen that demolition contractors will come under considerable economic and other pressure to process demolished concrete for reuse as unscreened gravel, base and subbase materials, aggregates for production of new concrete or for other useful purposes. Large-scale recycling of demolished concrete will contribute not only to the solution of a growing waste disposal problem. It will also help to conserve natural resources of sand and gravel and to secure future supply of reasonably priced aggregates for building and road construction purposes within large urban areas of the world. Applications of Recycled Aggregate The recycled concrete aggregate shown in Figure 1.1 can be defined as crushed concrete composed of aggregate fragments coated with cement paste or cement mortar from the demolition of the old structures or pavements that has been processed to produce aggregates suitable for use in new concrete. The processing, as with many natural aggregates, generally involves crushing, grading and washing. This removes contaminant materials such as reinforcing steel, remnants of formwork, gypsum board, and other foreign materials. The resulting coarse aggregate is then suitable for use in concrete. The fine aggregate, however, generally contains a considerable amount of old cement paste and mortar. This tends to increase the drying shrinkage and creep properties of the new concrete, as well as leading to problems with unworkable mix and strength. Therefore, many transportation departments have found that using 100% coarse recycled aggregate but with only about 10% to 20% recycled fines works well. Regarding the results of most of the previous research that has been done so far, the application of Recycled Aggregate is mostly currently in low quality/strength concrete, for example, pavement base and slab rather than used in structural concrete. The most common application of Recycled Concrete Aggregate is the use in concrete sub-base in road construction, bank protection, noise barriers and embankments, many types of general bulk fills and fill materials for drainage structures. After the removal of contaminants through selective demolition, screening, and/or air separation and size reduction in a crusher to aggregate sizes, crushed concrete can be used as new concrete for pavements, shoulders, median barriers, sidewalks, curbs and gutters, and bridge foundations; structural grade concrete; soil-cement pavement bases; moulded concrete bricks and blocks; bituminous concrete etc. However, there is an example of recycled concrete being used for part of the structural slabs in a high-rise building in Japan but there was no too much detail available on this project. According to research that has been conducted in Australia, current use of recycled aggregates is still only around 7% of road construction material in South Australia. Victoria Road also use recycled aggregate for their road base construction projects in Victoria but MainRoads in Queensland does not currently. Traditionally, the application of recycled aggregate is used as landfill. Nowadays, the applications of recycled aggregate in construction areas are wide. The applications are different from country to country. Concrete Kerb and Gutter Mix Recycled aggregate have been used as concrete kerb and gutter mix in Australia. According to Building Innovation Construction Technology (1999), Stone says that the 10mm recycled aggregate and blended recycled sand are used for concrete kerb and gutter mix in the Lent hall Street project in Sydney. Granular Base Course Materials According to Market Development Study for Recycled Aggregate Products (2001), recycled aggregate are used as granular base course in the road construction. It also stated that recycled aggregate had proved that better than natural aggregate when used as granular base course in roads construction. They also found that when the road is built on the wet sub grade areas, recycled aggregate will stabilize the base and provide an improved working surface for pavement structure construction. Embankment Fill Materials Market Development Study for Recycled Aggregate Products (2001) stated that recycled aggregate can be used in embankment fill. The reason for being able to use in embankment fill is same as it is used in granular base course construction. The embankment site is on the wet sub grade areas. Recycled aggregate can stabilize the base and provide an improved working surface for the remaining works. Paving Blocks Recycled aggregate have been used as paving blocks in Hong Kong. According to Hong Kong Housing Department (n.d.), recycled aggregate are used as typical paving blocks. A trial project had been started to test the long – term performance of paving blocks made with recycled aggregate in 2002. Backfill Materials Recycled aggregate can be used as backfill materials. Mehus and Lillestol (n.d) found that Norwegian Building Research Institute (n.d) mentioned that recycled concrete aggregate can be used as backfill materials in the pipe zone along trenches after having testing in laboratory. Building Blocks Recycled aggregate used as building blocks. Mehus and Lillestol (n.d) stated that Optiroc AS had used recycled aggregate to produce the masonry sound insulation blocks. The masonry sound insulation blocks that produced had met all the requirements during the laboratory testing. International Status Mehus and Lillestol (n.d.) stated that RESIBA had constructed a new high school in Sorumsand, outside the city of Oslo, Norway in 2001. Recycled concrete aggregate had been used in this project. Thirty – five percent of coarse aggregate were replaced by recycled concrete aggregate in the foundations, half of the basement walls and columns. Several tests were conducted based on fresh and hardened concrete properties and the results shown that the concrete with thirty – five percent of recycled concrete aggregate have good freeze – thaw resistance. The use of recycled concrete aggregate did not shown any noticeable increase in cracking. According to Grubl, Nealen and Schmidt (n.d.), there is a building project, the â€Å"Waldspirale† by Friedensreich Hundertwasser, made from concrete with recycled aggregate in Darmstadf from November 1998 to September 1999. Numerous tests were evaluated for freshly missed and also hardened concrete properties. The result shown that the consistency controlled method for concrete with recycled aggregate is applicable. And it leads to concrete of equal quality when compared with concrete made from natural aggregate. According to Regain (1993/94), recycled aggregate were used as capping and sub-base layers in housing development at North Bracknell, UK in 1993/94. Visual inspections and condition surveys were carried out by using the falling weight deflectometer in 1998. The result shown that the sections with recycled aggregate did not show any difference in appearance compared to the sections that using natural aggregate. The tests gave the larger values of elastic modulus in the recycled aggregate sections. According to Regain (2001), footway paving slabs are being replaced gradually in London Borough of Bexley. Recycled aggregate are used as coarse aggregate in the concrete mix with a 12:1 aggregate to cement mix Advantages There are many advantages through using the recycled aggregate. The advantages that occur through usage of recycled aggregate are listed below. Environmental Gain The major advantage is based on the environmental gain. According to CSIRO (n.d.), construction and demolition waste makes up to around 40% of the total waste each year (estimate around 14 million tones) going to land fill. Through recycled these material, it can keep diminishing the resources of urban aggregated. Therefore, natural aggregate can be used in higher –grade applications. Save Energy The recycling process can be done on site. According to Kajima Technical Research Institute (2002), Kajima is developing a method of recycling crushed concrete that used in the construction, known as the Within-Site Recycling System. Everything can be done on the construction site through this system, from the process of recycled aggregate, manufacture and use them. This can save energy to transport the recycled materials to the recycling plants. Cost Secondly is based on the cost. The cost of recycled aggregate is cheaper than virgin aggregate. According to PATH Technology Inventory (n.d.), the costs of recycled concrete aggregate are sold around $3.50 to $7.00 per cubic yard. It depends on the aggregate size limitation and local availability. This is just around one and half of the cost for natural aggregate that used in the construction works. The transportation cost for the recycled aggregate is reduced due to the weight of recycled aggregate is lighter than virgin aggregate. Concrete Network (n.d) stated that recycling concrete from the demolition projects can saves the costs of transporting the concrete to the land fill (around $0.25 per ton/ mile), and the cost of disposal (around $100 per ton). Beside that, Aggregate Advisory Service (n.d.) also state that the recycling site may accept the segregates materials at lower cost than landfill without tax levy and recycled aggregate can be used at lower prices than primary aggregate in the construction works. Job Opportunities There will be many people involved in this new technology, such as specialized and skilled persons, general workers, drivers and etc. According to Scottish Executive (2004), a Scottish Market Development Program is developed. The purpose of this program is to recycle the materials that arising in Scotland. This program will provide 150 new jobs in the Scottish industry. Sustainability The amount of waste materials used for landfill will be reducing through usage of recycled aggregate. This will reduce the amount of quarrying. Therefore this will extend the lives of natural resources and also extend the lives of sites that using for landfill. Market is Wide The markets for recycled concrete aggregate are wide. According to Environmental Council of Concrete Organization (n.d), recycled concrete aggregate can be used for sidewalk, curbs, bridge substructures and superstructures, concrete shoulders, residential driveways, general and structural fill. It also mentioned that recycled concrete aggregate can be used in sub bases and support layers such as unstabilized base and permeable bases. Disadvantages Although there are many advantages by using recycled aggregate. But there are still some disadvantages in recycled aggregate. Hard to have permit Jacobsen (1999) stated that it is hard to get the permit for the machinery that needed air permit or permit to operate during the recycling process. These has to depend on the local or state regulations whether this technology is implemented or not. Lack of Specification and Guidelines According to Kawano (n.d), there is no specification or any guideline when using recycled concrete aggregate in the constructions. In many cases, the strength characteristic will not meet the requirement when using recycled concrete aggregate. Therefore, more testing should be considered when using recycled concrete aggregate. Water Pollution The recycled process will cause water pollution. Morris of National Ready Mix Concrete Association (n.d) had mentioned that the wash out water with the high pH is a serious environmental issue. According to Building Green (1993), the alkalinity level of wash water from the recycling plants is pH12. This water is toxic to the fish and other aquatic life. Project Aim The aim for this on – going project is to determine the strength characteristic of recycled aggregate for application in high strength structural concrete, which will give a better understanding on the properties of concrete with recycled aggregate, where can be an alternative material to coarse aggregate in structural concrete. Project Scope Review and research of recycled aggregate. Construct the concrete specimens by using different percentage of recycled aggregate. Investigation and laboratory testing on high strength concrete with recycled aggregate. Analysis the results and recommendation for further research area. Dissertation Overview This dissertation is structured in the following format. Chapter 2 provides a review of relevant literature, overview of recycling process, as well as comparison of recycled aggregate and natural aggregate. This chapter also discussed the previous investigation and testing done with recycled aggregate. Chapter 3 includes the preliminary design and information on the recycled  aggregate testing and design of the concrete mix. Chapter 4 describes the experimental methodology carried out in order to obtain the required data. Chapter 5 discusses the results and analysis of all experimental results obtained from the testing procedures. Chapter 6 contains the conclusions of the research and recommendations on further work. Literature review of Recycled Aggregate Literature review of Recycled Aggregate Conventional concrete aggregate consists of sand (fine aggregate) and various sizes and shapes of gravel or stones. However, there is a growing interest in substituting alternative aggregate materials, largely as a potential use for recycled materials. While there is significant research on many different materials for aggregate substitutes (such as granulated coal ash, blast furnace slag or various solid wastes including fiberglass waste materials, granulated plastics, paper and wood products / wastes, sintered sludge pellets and others), the only two that have been significantly applied are glass cullet and crushed recycled concrete itself. Even though aggregate typically accounts for 70% to 80% of the concrete volume, it is commonly thought of as inert filler having little effect on the finished concrete properties. However, research has shown that aggregate in fact plays a substantial role in determining workability, strength, dimensional stability, and durability of the concrete. Also, aggregates can have a significant effect on the cost of the concrete mixture. Certain aggregate parameters are known to be important for engineered-use concrete: hardness, strength, and durability. The aggregate must be clean, without absorbed chemicals, clay coatings, and other fine materials in concentrations that could alter the hydration and bond of the cement paste. It is important to note the difference between aggregate and cement, because some materials have found use both as a cementitious material and as aggregate (such as certain blast furnace slags). Materials that have been researched or applied only as cement substitutes are addressed in another Technology Inventory article Cement Substitutes. Aggregate composed of recycled concrete generally has a lower specific gravity and a higher absorption than conventional gravel aggregate. New concrete made with recycled concrete aggregate typically has good workability, durability and resistance to saturated freeze-thaw action. The compressive strength varies with the compressive strength of the original concrete and the water-cement ratio of the new concrete. It has been found that concrete made with recycled concrete aggregate has at least two-thirds the compressive strength and modulus of elasticity of natural aggregate concrete. Field-testing has shown that crushed and screened waste glass may be used as a sand substitute in concrete. Nearly all waste glass can be used in concrete applications, including glass that is unsuitable for uses such as glass bottle recycling. Some of the specific glass waste materials that have found use as fine aggregate are non-recyclable clear window glass and fluorescent bulbs with very small amounts of contaminants. Possible applications for such waste-glass concrete are bike paths, footpaths, gutters and similar non-structural work. Lack of widespread reliable data on aggregate substitutes can hinder its use. To design consistent, durable recycled aggregate concrete, more testing is required to account for variations in the aggregate properties. Also, recycled aggregate generally has a higher absorption and a lower specific gravity than conventional aggregate. Research has revealed that the 7-day and 28-day compressive strengths of recycled aggregate concrete are generally lower than values for conventional concrete. Moreover, recycled aggregates may be contaminated with residual quantities of sulfate from contact with sulfate rich soil and chloride ions from marine exposure. Glass aggregate in concrete can be problematic due to the alkali silica reaction between the cement paste and the glass aggregate, which over time can lead to weakened concrete and decreased long-term durability. Research has been done on types of glass and other additives to stop or decrease the alkali silica reaction and thereby maintain finished concrete strength. However, further research is still needed before glass cullet can be used in structural concrete applications. The applications of recycled aggregate in highway construction as a road base material are very board and have been in use for almost 100 years. There has been much research based on the use of recycled aggregate that has been carried out all around the world. The research on recycled aggregate that has been carried out indicated that the successful application of crushed aggregate in concrete can be achieved. This successful research has been achieved in many countries, in particular in Europe; United States; Japan and China. This chapter presents literature reviews on the effects of various factors on the recycled aggregate from research from those countries. The major objective of most of the experiments or research on recycled aggregate is to find out the results in the strength characteristic area and what is the best method to achieve high strength concrete with recycled aggregate. Strengths of Recycled Aggregate Concrete Made Using Field- Demolished Concrete as Aggregate Tavakoli M. (1996) studied the compressive; splitting tensile and flexural strengths of 100% recycled coarse aggregate concrete and 100% natural sand to compare them with normal concrete made of natural crushed stone. The water-cement ratio was 0.3 and 0.4 in the concrete mix design. The test result shows the compressive, tensile and flexural strengths of RCA are little higher than the natural aggregate at the same size of 25.4mm at 28-day specimen. This indicates that if the compressive strength of the original concrete that is being recycled is higher than that of the control concrete, then the recycled aggregate concrete can also be made to achieve higher compressive strength than the control concrete. The results also indicates increase L.A. abrasion loss and water absorption capacity of recycled aggregates, which partly reflect the increased amount of water, adhering to the original stone aggregate, generally lead to reduced compressive strength of recycled aggregate concrete. Dhir et al. (1998) studied the effect of the cleanliness and percentage of the replacement of RCA. They found out that the degree of cleanliness of aggregate has significantly affected on the results of the properties of both the plastic and hardened concrete. The workability and compressive strengths both were lower than the quarried aggregate from 17% to 78% depending on the percentage of replacement of RCA. The results also indicated recycled aggregate has very high air content. Limbachiya and Leelawat (2000) found that recycled concrete aggregate had 7 to 9% lower relative density and 2 times higher water absorption than natural aggregate. According to their test results, it shown that there was no effect with the replacement of 30% coarse recycled concrete aggregate used on the ceiling strength of concrete. It also mentioned that recycled concrete aggregate could be used in high strength concrete mixes with the recycled concrete aggregate content in the concrete. Sagoe, Brown and Taylor (2002) stated that the difference between the characteristic of fresh and hardened recycled aggregate concrete and natural aggregate concrete is relatively narrower than reported for laboratory crush recycled aggregate concrete mixes. There was no difference at the 5% significance level in concrete compressive and tensile strength of recycled concrete and control normal concrete made from natural aggregate. Limbachiya (2003) found that there is no effect by using up to 30% of coarse recycled concrete aggregate on the standard 100mm concrete cube compressive strength. But when the percentage of recycled concrete aggregate used increased, the compressive strength was reducing. Behavior of Construction and Demolition Debris in Base and Subbase Application Pappjr et al (1998) studied using recycled aggregates in Base and Subbase applications. They found that recycled concrete yielded higher resilient modulus than the dense graded aggregate currently used. Furthermore, the results have been shown that recycled concrete have less permanent deformation than dense graded aggregate. They concluded that recycled concrete could be a valuable alternative to natural materials for base and subbase applications. Influence of recycled aggregate quality on concrete properties Sanchez de Juan et al. (2000) studied what is the maximum percentage, from 20% to 100%, replacement of recycled aggregate in concrete. The results showed that the compressive strength of recycled concrete is lower than that of a control concrete with equal water/cement ratio and same cement content. Recycled concretes with a percentage of recycled coarse aggregate lower than 50% show decreases in the range 5-10%, while for concretes with 100% recycled aggregates, decreases ranged from 10-15%. Experimental results also indicated that properties of conventional concretes and recycled concretes with same compressive strength when less than 20% of recycled coarse aggregate are used. The exception being modulus of elasticity was decreased until 10% can be found in recycled concretes. When the percentage of recycled aggregate is lower than 50%, tensile strength and drying shrinkage of recycled concrete is similar to conventional concrete with same compressive strength. As a result of the testing, all properties of concrete with a 100% of recycled coarse aggregate are affected. Some studies on durability of recycled aggregate concrete Mandal et al. (2002) studied the durability of recycled aggregate concrete and found that recycled aggregate had less durability than natural aggregate. However, when 10 percent replacement of cement by fly ash was used with recycled aggregate, the durability observed was increased. It significantly improved the compressive strength up to 46.5MPa, reduced shrinkage and increased durability to a level comparable to natural aggregate. Therefore, the results of this study provide a strong support for the feasibility of using recycled aggregate instead of natural aggregate for the production of concrete. Use of recycled aggregates in molded concrete bricks and Blocks Poon et al. (2002) developed a technique to produce concrete bricks and paving blocks from recycled aggregates. The test result showed that replacing natural aggregate by 25% to 50% had little effect on the compressive strength, but higher levels of replacement reduced the compressive strength. The transverse strength increased as the percentage of recycled aggregate increased. The concrete paving blocks with a 28-day compressive strength of at least 49MPa can be produced without the incorporation of fly ash by using up to 100% recycled aggregate. According to the study, recycled aggregate has been used in structural engineering. For example, a viaduct and marine loch in the Netherlands in 1998 and an office building in England in 1999. The project in the Netherlands had shown that 20 percent of the coarse aggregate was replaced by recycled aggregate. The project also indicated even there are some disadvantage of recycled aggregate such as being too weak, more porous and that it has a very higher value of water absorption. However, the study showed that these weaknesses could be avoided by using mechanized moulded concrete bricks. The workability also could be improved by poring the mix into the mould. Therefore, the performance of the bricks and blocks was also satisfactory in the shrinkage and skid resistance tests. Concrete with Recycled materials as Coarse Aggregates: Shrinkage and Creep Behavior Tawrwe et al. (1999) compared limestone aggregate with concrete rubble. They found the concrete rubble had a very high water absorption compared to the limestone aggregate (0.74% against 6.83% of dry mass). Furthermore the porous aggregate absorbed water slowly in some tests. For example, it was difficult to determine accurately the amount of water that had to be added to obtain suitable workability. The critical shrinkage of the limestone aggregate concrete was higher than the concrete rubble, but after a year the shrinkage was greater for the concrete rubble based aggregate. Treatments for the improvement of recycled aggregate Katz (2004) stated two methods to improve the quality of the recycled aggregates. The superplasticizer (1% weight of silica fume) was added to the solution of 10L of water and 1 kg raw silica fume to ensure proper ispersion of silica fume particles. After the silica fume impregnation, the SF treatment seems to improve significantly the compressive strength up to 51MPa at ranged from 23% to 33% at 7 days of the recycled aggregate concrete. Ultrasonic cleaning of the recycled aggregate to remove the loose particles and improve the bond between the new cement paste and the recycled aggregate, which, in turn, increased 7% of strength. Kantawong and Laksana (1998) mentioned that the fineness modulus and percentage of water absorption used instead with the recycled aggregate is higher than natural aggregate. The results of compressive strength of added reduce water admixture concrete is higher than the one that not added reduce water admixture concrete, ane the compressive strength of concrete produced that using recycled aggregate is higher than concrete using natural coarse aggregate. Sawamoto and Takehino (2000) found that the strength of the recycled aggregate concrete can be increased by using Pozzolanic material that can absorb the water. Mandal (2002) stated that adjusted the water/cement ratio when using recycled concrete aggregate during the concrete mixing can improved the strength of the recycled aggregate concrete specimens. From the obtained result, recycled aggregate concrete specimens had the same engineering and durability performance when compared to the concrete specimens made by natural aggregate within 28days design strength. Chen and Kuan (2003) found that the strength of the concrete specimens was affected by the unwashed recycled aggregate in the concrete. The effect will more strange at the low water cement ratio. These effects can be improved by using the washed recycled aggregate. Construction and Demolition Waste Recycling Reuse as Aggregate in Concrete Production Limbachiya (2004) studied the properties of recycled aggregate compared with natural aggregates and found out the density of RCA is typically 4-8% lower and water absorption 2-6 times higher. The results showed that a reduction in slump value with increasing RCA concrete mix. The results also slowed that up to 30% coarse RCA has no effect on the standard concrete cube strength but thereafter a gradual reduction with increasing RCA content occurs. This means that some adjustment is necessary of the water/cement ratio to achieve the equivalent strength with high proportions of RCA. Review on Recycled Process This section discusses the recycling process and method. Recycling Plant Recycling plant normally located in the suburbs of cities due to the noise pollution that make by t